A Study in Persuasion

Table of contents:

1. The persuasion process
2. The dimensions of persuasion
3. Correlates of change
4. Persuasion is the process of learning
5. Social judgement theory
6. Consistency theories
7. Forced compliance
8. Techniques of persuasion
9. Persuasion in the public arena
10. Advertising
11. Persuasion in relationships
12. Psychological appeals

The persuasion process:

1. An event (E) causes an actor (A) to want a goal (G).
2. G causes A to want the persuader (P) to do an action (X) that get A G. 
3. A believes that P might not do X. 
4. A intends to get P to do X. 
5. A selects a message and transmits it to P in an effort to get P to do X.

The dimensions of persuasion:

1. Cognitive system.
1. Functions:
1. Organizes information from the environment.
2. Tells the body how to respond to the information.
2. The cognitive system compostion:
1. Beliefs- propositions that are either true or false.
2. Values.
• Tells us what we should and should not do.
• Tells us what is important and unimportant.
3. Concepts- organizes beliefs according to some common characteristic.
4. Rules- mechanisms that ultimately affect social action.
• Interpretation- determines the meaning for situations.
• Action- tells us how to act.
• Obligation- we must do it.
• Permissive- we may do it.
• Limiting- we cannot do it.
• Interpretation and action act together.
• Context is very important. Context tells us which rules are to be invoked in a given situation.
• Conformity of rules.
• Situational forces- external.
• Practical- internal.
• Communication requires that interpretation and action rules to be coordinated with one another.
• Persuasion is changing the intepretation and/or action rules.
3. Reasoning.
1. Induction- conclusions are probable.
2. Deduction- conclusions are certain.
3. Toolman's model of argument.
• Data- beliefs, raw material that support conclusions.
• Claim- data does something to person.
• Warrant- links data with claim.
• Qualifier- probably, certainly.
• Backing- evidence that you make in support of your warrant.
• Reservations- rebuttale to warrant.
4. The need theory.
1. The persuader's basic needs satisfied by needing or doing something.
2. Audiences make choices on the basis of need.
3. Everything a human does is made of biological and social systems. These systems require constant maintenance. Needs are aroused when the system requires maintenance.
4. Instability activates the need system to become stabilized.
5. Need -> Drive -> Behavior -> Need-reduction.
6. Needs can be influenced by the outside.
7. Needs can be stimulated by buying the "product."
8. Monroe's motivated sequence.
• Attention
• Need
• Satisfaction
• Visualization
• Action
2. The arousal dimension.
1. Greenwald's four attentions.
1. Preattention- not really focused on what you're doing.
2. Focal attention- at a minimal level you are attending to what you are doing.
3. Comprehension- you are focused on the content of the message and you know what is being said.
4. Elaboration- generating thoughts on what you're thinking.
• Counter arguing- generating negative thoughts.
2. Emotional messages.
1. Least likely to introduce preattention. Recievers respond to message.
2. Less likely that they can argue with the message.
3. Emotional messages can be much more vivid.
4. Types of emotional messages.
• Humor.
• It really draws attention towards the advertisement.
• Humor helps with recall.
• How to create a positive impression toward your product.
• Helps to overcome resistance to your persuasion.
• Warmth.
• Positive sentiment that is flowing from the message.
• It does arouse people.
• Feelings of warmth can change rapidly.
• Warmth creates a lot of positive feelings toward the advertisement.
• Fear appeals- harmfull consequences will befall the receiver if he or she doesn't comply with the request.
• A fear appeal has to provide strong reason to be effected.
• Has to be well constructed.
3. Relational dimension.
1. We attribute qualities with people.
2. Credibility- the receiver perception of the source.
1. Trustworthiness- lack of trust.
2. Believability.
3. Personal characteristics.
3. Sleeper affect- a tendency for more attitude change to happen not right after arguments but a little later on. (For low-credible sources.)
4. Similiarity- develops some similiarity between you and your persuader. Builds a bond between people.
5. If you need information, credibility is more important.
6. If the situation is personal then similiarity is more important. Based on tests.
7. Credibility is more important in sales and advertising...
1. When the salesman wants new customers.
2. Window salesman is an expert.
3. When the customers have to make a complex buying decision.
8. Similarity is more important...
1. When the salesperson in customer are going to interact over a period of time.
2. When the customer knows he's similar to the salesperson.
3. When the product is a low-risk situation.
9. Celebrities.
1. Having celebrity status can be persuasive.
2. Celebrity that elicits good feelings is paired with a product in an attempt to make the product elicit good feelings (classical conditioning.)
10. Physical attractions.
1. A physically attractive person can persuade you more than a physically unattractive person.
2. Works when the person is unknown.
3. The person with charisma can be pretty persuasive.
11. Power.
1. Powerful people can be very persuasive.
2. Kinds of power people can have:
• Reward power.
• Coercive power.
• Referent power - a lot of respect.
• Expert power.
• Legitimate power - they hold an office.

Correlates of change:

1. Source- credibility, similiarity, physical attractiveness.
2. Message.
1. Organization helps comprehension.
2. Repetition affects rention.
3. Repetition within the message.
4. Repetition of the message.
5. Repetition seems to affect learning.
6. Does increase learning up to a point.
7. You get saturated with the message.
8. Only good commercials wear out over time.
9. Bad commercials wear out first.
10. Several variations on the same message are good as long as the versions are less similiar.
11. Gag commercials wear out fast.
12. The greater the span of time the longer the commercial can run effectively.
13. One sided vs. two sided messages:
1. On any issue there are two sides. One sided message you are given one side.
2. A two sided message you give both sides, and you discredit your opponents side.
3. Two sided messages works for an educated audience.
4. Two sided messages works when the audience is opposed to your side.
5. Two sided messages tend to be better when the audience is likely to hear both sides.
6. One sided messages work when the audience agrees with you.
14. Evidence- providing support for your idea.
1. Evidence tends to be effective when the source credibility is low.
2. Evidence tends to be effective when the evidence is new.
3. Delivered rather badly it tends to be ineffective.
15. Channels.
1. Whenever a persuasive message is highly redundant or somewhat difficult it's better to use more than one channel.
2. Multiple channels tend to reinforce messages.
3. Extremely difficult material is better presented as printed material.
3. Receiver.
1. In persuasion, you have to receive the message.
2. One you receive the message you have to yield to the message (high intelligence reaches this stage).
3. People who are on the opposite ends of the knowledge, intelligence, and self-esteem scale seem to be less persuasable that people who are in the middle of the scale.

Persuasion is the process of learning:

1. Old paradigm - it really doesn't touch on the human psyche very well.
2. Three assumptions of the new paradigm:
1. Behavioral change in human is best understood through continuously, reciprocal interaction of environmental influences and inner forces - imagining, insight, foresight.
2. Symbol manipulation permit you to have insight to what will be harmful or beneficial to you.
3. Humans are capable of self-regulation.
3. People are goal manipulation. We act on probable circumstances.
4. Ways of acquiring new information:
1. Direct observation.
2. Role-playing or imagining ourselves in a certain situation.
3. Modeling - serving other people's behavior and modeling their behavior.
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Competence
4. Motivation
5. Four models of self-persuasion:
1. Desensitization- learn a new set of responses to an old behavior you're uncomfortable with.
2. Behavior modification- learn a new set of consequences for the behavior.
3. Role playing- imagining what the consequences will be like.
4. Factors that affect the success of modeling.
1. Rewards and punishments.
2. Similiarity.
3. Competence.
4. Status- high status can be influencial.
5. Consistency- modeling should be consistent.
6. Mutiple models.

Social judgement theory:

1. Factors associated with the judgment process.
1. Stimulus- the message.
2. Certain cognitive processes.
3. Judgement itself.
2. Principles.
1. Assimilation affects - things at a close distance to an anchor to be judged as similar to the anchor even though that might not be.
2. Contrast - things at a far distance from an anchor are judged to be less similar.
3. Latitudes.
1. Acceptance - your own anchor point, all closely associated viewpoints.
2. Non-commitment- not sure.
3. Rejection - a group of viewpoints you find unacceptable.
4. Ego-involvement.
1. A person with a high ego thinks that the issue is important.
2. They have very broad bands of rejection.
3. They have very narrow bands of acceptance, and non-commitment.

Consistency theories:

1. Balance theory.
1. Assumptions.
1. Conflict between ones belief causes psychological discomfort.
2. Psychological discomfort is a noxious state.
3. People will make every effort to reduce discomfort.
2. Components:
1. Focal person (P).
2. Other person (O).
3. Object or event (X).
3. Relationships among components:
1. If P and O both feel the same way about X and they both like each other then the relationship is balanced.
2. If P and O feel differently about X and they don't like each other then the relationship is balanced.
3. Any other conditions results in an unbalanced relationship.
4. The predictions:
1. People are motivated to balance unbalanced states.
2. Balance will come out in the easiest possible way.
2. Cognitive dissonance. To persuade someone you need to create dissonance in your audience, and then show them how to reduce the dissonance.

Forced compliance- being induced to behave in a manner that is contrary to your beliefs.

1. It works best under these conditions:
1. The persuadee thinks he has a free choice.
2. When there is little justification or reward for doing so.
3. When it takes a lot of effort to do by the persuadee.
4. When the persuader is unattractive. 
5. The results what you're advocating are not great for the listener.

Techniques of persuasion:

1. The old give-and-take.
1. Reciprocation.
1. We should try to repay in kind what another has given us.
2. Persuader gives the persuadee something to persuade him.
3. The rule is enforced even when there are uninvited debts. With this rule there's an obligation to receive too.
4. Can trigger some unfair exchanges. Sometimes people can repay the giver a lot more.
2. Reciprocal concessions. "Door in the face."
1. The persuader makes an outrageous request, and turn around and make a more reasonable request.
2. If it appears that the persuader has given into the persuadee, the persuadee gives in to that persuader.
3. The rule can stimulate problems in perceptual contrast.
4. The rule gives the persuader an unfair advantage. The persuader wins in either case.
5. The pursuadee often believes that he or she has more control than he or she really has.
6. The persuadee often feels satisfied with the deal.
2. Social proof.
1. One way to define correct behavior is to look at what other people are doing.
2. The persuader tries to persuade the persuadee by having a confederate do what the persuadee is supposed to do.
3. Contexts in which social proof is effective:
1. When the persuadee is unsure what to do.
2. When the confederate is similiar to the persuadee.
3. Liking.
1. You make friends inorder to influence them.
2. Reasons for liking:
1. Physical attraction.
2. Similiarity.
3. Compliments.
4. Connect and cooperation- familiarity.
4. Simple consistency.
1. People value other people for being consistent. 
2. We try to be consistent.
3. We see being consistent as having beneficial side effects for us.
4. After we have been induced to take a stand on an issue we are more willing to keep that stand on the issue.
5. Simple consistency works best when an active commitment is made.
6. Commitments can be self-perpetuating.
5. Authority.
1. People will obey authority.
2. A persuader uses an authority figure to persuade the persuadee.
3. Context in which authority is effective:
1. Celebrities.
2. Titles
3. Clothes
4. Slogans
6. Scarcity.
1. People assign more value to opportunities where they are.
2. Kinds of scarcity:
1. Limited numbers or quantities.
2. Limited time.
3. Reactance theory:
1. Everybody has a set of "free" behaviors that they can potentially engage in.
2. Given the above, he/she will experience psychological reactions whenever they become limited or threatened to become limited.
3. Psychological reactance- the motivation to restore lost or potentially lost freedom.
4. A feeling of aggressiveness or hostility is expressed.
5. This hostility is heightened...
• When the free behavior is important to you.
• When there's a lot of free behaviors being lost.
• When the magnitude of the potential loss is great.
6. Scarcity works when people feel what they're losing is real. They have to think it is real.

Persuasion in the public arena:

1. Identification of a problem:
1. Transform the present state of affairs into a more ideal state of affairs.
2. Not everyone will view the state of affairs the same.
3. Not every condition precipitates persuasion.
4. Occasionally persuasion deals with large social problems.
5. Beliefs as obstacles to persuasion:
1. The audience may hold beliefs that preclude beliefs to persuasion.
2. The speaker needs to know what obstacles are out there against his persuasion.
6. Message strategies- a line of argument that is effective to countering a particular belief.
7. Look for obstructing beliefs
1. Specific- related to more about issues.
2. Global- something is making the audience uncomfortable.
• Don't focus on the global.
• Focus on the benefits.
• Be flexible about your position.
• Try to find an argument that counters as many arguments as possible.
• You must counter significant reservations. Refute them directly.
3. Select a "fundamental" appeal.
• Altruism vs. self-interest.
• Advantages versus disadvantages- more advantages outweighs the disadvantages.
• The investment in time, money, and energy.
4. Avoid "weak" arguments.
• Questionable arguments.
• Trivial arguments.
2. Structuring the message:
1. Important in a persuasive speech.
1. A thesis is composed of a subject and a predicate.
2. Got to have an argumentive edge.
3. Thesis should be about something the persuader wants his audience to believe or to do.
4. Clarify:
• Define some key terms.
• Distinquish between your position and someone else's position.
• Make sure thesis is realistic.
2. Introductions.
1. Create concern for issues- show the enormity of the problem.
• Show how the issue affects the audience.
• Make them understand the severity.
2. Counter resistance.
• Delay the thesis statement. 
• Symphasize with the audience.
• Refute audiences reservations, but not in a combative way.
• Reassure the audience your not threatening.
3. Address negative feelings audience might have about yourself:
• Self-ridicule.
• Emphasize that you have mutual values.
• Acknowledge the negative feelings.
• Ask the audience for a fair hearing.
3. Conclusions.
1. Convey a sense of finality.
2. Merely summarize the view.
3. Provide choherence to the message as a whole.
4. Crystalize the focus for the audience.
4. Body of the message.
1. Try to outline the message.
• Helps to clarify the sequence of the message.
• Helps to determine if the ideas follow one another.
2. State the main points of contention.
3. Assuming the logical adequacy of the message.
4. Try to produce contentions that are consistent with the belief that are already in the audience.
5. Try to make sure the structure is clear for the audience.
6. Preview statements.
7. Keep the number of kittens is down to three or four.
5. Gaining belief.
1. Some general considerations:
• Need for support.
• Analyze the degree of resistance to the contention.
• Site your sources.
2. Justifying reassassment of your position:
• Need for doing it.
• Circumstances have changed.
• New information is now available.
• The public is misled.
• Others have changed their view.
• A reassessment is not a dishonable thing to do.
3. Plausibility- the content in which possibilities could happen.
• Opens people's minds up to possibilities.
• Four ways of constructing a plausibility argument:
• Support a broad belief. 
• Simply explain a situation that could develope.
• Simply refute all alternative contentions.
• Show that something is less likely to be true, then this could happen.
4. Sign reasoning- something indicates something else.
• Analogy signs.
• Signs that support contentions under unfavorable contentions are better than ones that support favorable contentions.
• If a sign has shown to be reliable in the past, it can be said that it could be still reliable.
5. Explanation.
• Trying to show all the causual relationships.
• How does it happen.
• Trying to provide an account.
6. Presenting the problem.
1. The present state of affairs is intolerable:
• Magnitude is extensive.
• Suffering is intense.
• Situation requires immediate attention.
2. An ideal state of affairs can be realized:
• Visualize better state.
• New state is attainable.
• New state is desirable.
3. A single statistic can capture the magnitude of the problem.
4. Talk about the number of people affected.
5. Develop comparisons.
6. Indicate multiple implications.
7. Show the problem is more severe than other problems.
8. The effects of the problem or enduring.
9. Show how a person endures this problem. General or specific.
10. Try to convey urgency in your message.
11. Try to show the situation is deteriorating rapidly and time is limited.
12. Capture the advantages of the new state.
7. Defending the proposal.
1. Behavior directives:
• The problem fits in a particular category of situations.
• Such situations call for a specific course of action.
2. Prediction of consequences:
• Proposal is best.
• Proposal has additional desirable consequences.
• Proposal has tolerable disadvantages.
• Proposal is consistent with the audience's values.
3. Show the particular situation fits a specific definition.

Advertising- any message tailered to persuade a person to accept a product or service. Time and space are already bought.

1. A lot of advertising today is mediated. In the early days it was door to door.
2. In the media the advertisers have control over the audience.
3. The ad has a lot of lifestyle around it. You buy this ad and this is the lifestyle you get.
• It gives the advertiser more control over how to portray the product.
4. Kinds of ads:
1. Product advertising. 
2. Service ads.
3. Good will or image ads.
4. Public service announcements- ads for non-profit organizations.
5. Political ads.
5. Advertising is more or less aimed at a specific audience. Time, place, and info imbedded in the ad tells us who the intended audience is.
6. Ads do not necessarily represent reality. Ads sometimes underpresent portions of the audience or distort others.
7. Effects:
1. It appears that ads don't have a widespread affect on the public.
2. General audiences do not appear succeptible to ads, although there are some people who are already highly succeptible.
8. The advertising environment:
1. The consumer.
1. Sources of information.
• Direct experience.
• Interpersonal information - what other people tell you.
• The media - the advertisement.
• Education.
2. Individual differences.
• Highly mobile people.
• Small town people are not susceptible to advertisements.
• Immobile people like the handicapped or elderly are more susceptible.
• The poor tend to be more susceptible.
• People in the third world are more susceptible.
• The young are more susceptible.
• People are more susceptible to products when they know less about the product or don't have access to information.
2. The advertiser.
1. Product constraints.
• Type of product you are dealing with:
• Frequency rate of product being bought.
• Thinking product or feeling product.
• The expense of the product.
• Positioning in the market.
• Life cycle of the product.
• New product.
• Old product being expanded in other markets.
2. Target constraints.
• Lifestyle.
• Economic differences.
• Gender.
• Heavy users.
3. Media constraints.
• Local or national media.
• Special or general media.
3. The message.
1. Attention getting appeals.
2. Confidence building appeals. Designed to develope trust.
3. Desires stimulating appeals.
• Benefits.
• Acquistion.
• Prevention.
• Protection.
• Relief.
• Product claims.
• Superority- best product.
• Quantity- we sell the most.
• Efficiency- works the best.
• Beauty- it looks the best.
• Novelty- it is new.
• Stability- it's reliable.
• Utility- it's practical.
• Fast.
• Safe.
• Scarcity- the product is scarce.
4. Urgency stressing appeals.
5. Response appeals.
9. Strategies in add design- helps in recall.
1. Visual strategies- helps in the recall of the name of the product.
1. Pictorial equivalents- literal translation of a word in the ad in pictorial form.
2. Pictorial associates- attributes of the product in pictorial form.
3. Letter accentuation- playing with the letter of the name of the product.
4. Modelling and demonstrating ads- do affect behavior.
5. Color- have a very strong effect; bright colors work well.
6. Concreteness- use of words, phrases, or stories that arouse emotions or imagery.
2. Organizational strategies- help to coordinate parts of the ad into a meaningful whole.
1. Chunking- all the bits of info are coordinated to produce a whole.
2. Advanced organizers- forecasts an ad before its arrival. Should be used sparingly.
3. Analogies- names of the product that compare it to something else. Helps to communicate imagery very effectively.
10. Advertising medias.
1. Direct mail- letters that solicites the customer to buy the product or use the service.
1. The advertiser knows who his audience is. The advertiser must know who his audience is.
2. Directed to a specific audience.
3. The advertiser develops a persona. The advertiser is trying to develope an image.
4. The advertiser develops an argument to get the customer.
• Benefits to the customer is the major appeal.
• Experience or role you understand.
2. Print ads- permits a blend of emotional and traditional appeal.
1. Directed at a specific audience who subscribe to the medium of the print ad.
2. The caption supports the pictures.
3. Identifiable person.
• By using personalities or celebrities we know.
• An attractive image is associated with the product.
• Print ads sweet talk the consumer.
4. The appeals:
• Use of definition.
• Use of comparison.
• Relationships- cause and effect.
• Testimony by a celebrity.
3. Television- movement enacts a story or parable.
1. A lot of sentiment and emotion to these ads.
2. The appeals:
• Use authority.
• Dramative illustration.
• Dramatization.
• Vignettes- small little scenes but together. Serve to not only to sell you, but to entertain you as well.

Persuasion in relationships:

1. External rules - commonly-held expectations about how to behave in a particular situation.
2. Internal rules- emerged in interaction between the partners in that relationship.
3. Goals:
1. Relationship- to change the relationship.
2. Instrumental - activities in the relationship.
3. Self-identity.
4. Sources of personal influence:
1. Power:
1. Control of outcomes.
2. Relational identification - "victim," "rescuer."
3. Identify values- obligations.
2. Control:
1. Open-up messages- statements of control.
2. One-down messages - submissive messages.
3. One-across messages- none of the above.
4. Complimentary messages- one-up, one-down.
5. Symmetrical messages- one up, one-up; one-down, one-down.
6. Transitional messages- one-across.

Psychological appeals:

1. Self perservation- the need to stay alive and to be healthy.
2. Sexual attraction.
3. Acquisition of property- the appeal to the pocketbook; how to get more for your money.
4. Self-esteem- the desire to be looked up to--status.
5. Personal enjoyment- the desire to experience pleasure.
6. Constructiveness- the desire to show that one is inventive and creative.
7. Destructiveness- the desire to rid oneself of things which are detrimental to one's well-being, to put one's destructive instincts to good use.
8. Curiosity- the need to satisfy one's sense of curiosity.
9. Imitation- the desire to emulate those we admire.
10. Alturism- the desire to think we are not always selfishly motivated, to be noble.
11. Youth- the desire to remain young.